Longitudinal associations between physical discipline and externalizing behavioral problems across childhood

Abstract

Numerous studies have reported a positive association between physical discipline and children’s externalizing behavioral problems. Yet, limited longitudinal research has distinguished their reciprocal associations at both between- and within-person levels. This study explored these relations across childhood, considering both stable trait-like (i.e., between-person) and time-specific state-like (i.e., within-person) relationships, focusing on a cultural context where the use of physical discipline is quite common. Data were drawn from the birth cohort study in Singapore, and the final sample included 568 mother-child dyads. Mothers reported on their use of physical discipline and children’s externalizing behaviors when the child was in early childhood (age 4), middle childhood (age 7/8), and pre-adolescence (age 10). Bidirectional associations were examined in a random-intercept cross-lagged panel model, decomposing the effects at between- and within-person levels. The model showed good model fit, x2 (9) = 21.59, p = .010, CFI = 0.98, TLI = 0.94, RMSEA = 0.05 (90% CI [0.02, 0.08]). Accounting for child sex and household income, a significant relationship emerged at the between-person level, r = .49, p < .001, supporting the commonly reported positive association between physical discipline and externalizing problems in children. However, at the within-person level, all cross-lagged paths were statistically nonsignificant, suggesting no evidence for reciprocal effects over time. Taken together, these findings underscore the importance of disentangling between- and within-person effects in promoting a comprehensive understanding of associations between physical discipline and externalizing problems.