The effect of frustration on executive function in children and adolescents

Abstract

Frustration is a common emotion in learning contexts, yet its influence on executive function (EF) in children and adolescents remains underexplored. This study examines the impact of frustration on EF performance -- specifically inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility-- in children and adolescents. Participants (n = 358) were randomly assigned to complete one of three EF tasks (Flanker, List Sort, or Dimensional Change Card Sort) before and after a frustration induction. Results showed that frustration significantly improved inhibition performance but had no significant effect on WM or CF. Age did not moderate the emotion-EF relationship, as no significant interaction between age group and emotion condition was found. Emotion regulation strategies such as habitual reappraisal predicted inhibition performance in the frustration condition, while suppression did not predict EF performance in the emotional condition. These findings suggest that frustration selectively enhanced inhibition and underscore the need to consider the complexity of emotional dimensions and task demands in understanding how emotions predict EF performance. Future research should explore how the motivational direction of emotions and the influence of momentary (state-based) emotion regulation on EF.